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Overview Our cells are complex microscopic structures that carry many functional components inside them, called organelles. Each organelle within a living cell works continuously to ensure our body can function and survive. But what if our cell parts become dysfunctional and cannot be repaired? Despite not being desirable to our body, if such an event happens, the body will rely on the lysosomes, the cell components that recycle the “out-of-order” parts. This article reviews a breakthrough in cellular repair in which scientists find a mechanism that corrects dysfunctional lysosomes to treat diseases and make longevity possible. RELATED: Can Spermidine Help Slow Down Aging?   Lysosomal Repair Can Be the Pathway to Anti-aging What Are the Lysosomes? The “Recycling Center” of a Cell Lysosomes are membrane-bound cell organelles that play a vital role in various cellular processes. They can be found inside eukaryotic cells like those in animals but not in prokaryotic cells in plants. As the “recycling center” of a cell, lysosomes break down molecular waste within a cell using their digestive enzymes to turn waste into the building blocks a cell needs to recreate new organelles and maintain its function. Lysosomes also protect the cell from external materials, like invading viruses and bacteria, using the same enzymes for degrading the molecular waste.   Lysosomes Contain Acidic Enzymes Lysosomes are different from other cell parts as these organelles are very acidic. To break down large molecules into smaller ones, the digestive enzymes inside the lysosomes, known as “hydrolytic enzymes,” need to burn through everything they touch. Therefore, the membrane boundary surrounding the lysosomes is vital to their proximate organelles and the cell’s integrity. Any unwanted interaction between the lysosomal enzymes and the nearby organelles may result in their degradation or dysfunction.   Why Are They Important to the Cells? Lysosomes Break Down Excess or Worn-out Cell Parts As a recycling center of a cell, lysosomes ensure all the cell parts are working correctly. If something goes wrong, lysosomes will be engaged in the breakdown and recycling of such dysfunctional cell components, making room for new organelles to generate in a natural process called autophagy (meaning “self-eating”). The mitochondria are an example of this breakdown and recycling process. These organelles, found in almost every cell of an organism, usually function by creating the energy for cellular processes, hence known as the cell’s powerhouse. However, the mitochondria may develop a fault for several reasons, including aging or genetic predisposition, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction. This is when the lysosomes step in and get rid of the worn-out mitochondria.   Lysosomes Destroy Invading Viruses and Bacteria The lysosomes also serve as a defense mechanism against infection. Viruses and bacteria can enter a cell by endocytosis, a process by which cells absorb particles from the outside by engulfing them with the cell membrane. If such invasion occurs, the lysosomes will fuse with the vesicle surrounding the viruses and bacteria and start delivering the enzymes to dissolve the invading particles. So why do lysosomes have to fuse with the vesicle that wraps around the invading particles and not quickly deliver their enzymes? It is because directly removing the harmful particles will simultaneously blow away other healthy cell parts. Instead, fusing allows the acidic enzymes of lysosomes to be contained within the vesicle. RELATED: 5 Proven Ways to Aid Telomere Shortening for Overall Health & Wellness   Why is Lysosomal Dysfunction Detrimental? Stressors Can Trigger Lysosomal Leakage Recently, a process called “lysophagy” has been named after autophagy to describe the process that causes damage to the protective membrane of the lysosomes. This process occurs following selective autophagy that targets the lysosomal membrane. The underlying mechanism of how lysophagy occurs and causes damage to the lysosomal membrane still needs to be fully understood. Because inside the lysosomes are the cell-damaging enzymes, a ruptured membrane may cause their contents to escape to the environment inside the cell, a phenomenon known as lysosomal membrane permeabilization.   Lysosomal Membrane Permeabilization and Diseases Lysosomal membrane permeabilization is a hallmark of lysosome-related diseases. Unlike the milder damage to the membrane that can be quickly and directly repaired in healthy cells, this leakage, if it becomes severe, cannot be resolved by itself. The accumulation of leaky lysosomes has been associated with several neurodegenerative disorders, cancers, cardiovascular diseases, and aging-related diseases, collectively known as lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs).   How Are Lysosomes With Severe Leakage Repaired? The PITT Pathway – A Universal Mechanism for Lysosomal Repair Researchers at the University of Pittsburgh investigated how damaged lysosomes are naturally repaired to learn more about diseases caused by leaky lysosomes and develop a therapy option for this condition. First, the research team intentionally damaged some lysosomes in lab-grown cells to examine how the repairing process naturally occurs in the damaged lysosomes. Within minutes, an enzyme called PI4K2A had accumulated and generated high amounts of a signaling molecule called PtdIns4P. This signaling PtdIns4P is like a “red flag.” It alerts the cell about the issue and instructs the body to recruit ORPs, a set of repairing proteins. Through the ORPs, the endoplasmic reticulum, the cellular component involved in protein and lipid synthesis, is then connected to the PtdIns4P on the lysosome. The endoplasmic reticulum then wraps the lysosome. This is an exciting finding because the endoplasmic reticulum and lysosomes typically do not come close to each other. Still, when the lysosome is damaged, they begin to embrace.   Resealing Lysosomal Membrane Through Cholesterols and Lipids In this arrangement, the endoplasmic reticulum wrapping around the lysosome makes it easier to transfer cholesterols and lipids to the lysosome, which are required to fix and reseal the ruptured lysosomal membrane. Finally, a protein called ATG2, which functions as a bridge to carry more lipids to the lysosome to seal any remaining tears, is activated as the last step in the repair process. The researchers describe the interactions between the cell components as “beautiful,” as these organelles have long existed but have never been recognized to display such an intricate interconnection

Overview In medicine, the role of the gut in maintaining human health has long been emphasized. Even thousands of years ago, Hippocrates, one of the most phenomenal figures in the history of medicine around the 4th century BCE, is credited with saying that “Bad digestion is the root of all evil” and that “All disease begins in the gut.” Indeed, the gut is an “ecosystem” of 100 trillion bacteria, both good and bad, and contributes to our overall health. But this “gatekeeper” of the entire microbiota sometimes does not hold all the living things together and instead allows them to pass through the gut lining, causing a phenomenon called “intestinal permeability,” also known as “leaky gut.” This article provides comprehensive information about the role of intestinal permeability in human health and how we can maintain overall well-being, starting with the gut. RELATED: 5 Best Anti-aging Foods for Gut Health   Intestinal Permeability: A Vital Health Determiner Beyond the Gut What Is Intestinal Permeability? The gut inside our abdomen consists of an extensive intestinal lining (or gut lining) that, if we lay it flat out on a surface, can be as big as a tennis court. This semi-permeable lining is crucial in allowing nutrients from digested food to be absorbed into the circulatory system. However, the intestinal lining can sometimes be “out of whack” due to multiple factors, causing the absorption barrier held together by the tight junctions to be enlarged. This unhealthy state of the gut lining is called “increased intestinal permeability” or “leaky gut syndrome,” allowing unwanted substances, like toxins and bacteria, to penetrate. Remember that the gut lining is not completely impermeable and functions by allowing the beneficial substances to pass through. Instead, it is the increased intestinal permeability that is harmful to the gut and all the organs surrounding it. Of course, our bodies do not allow harmful infiltration from inside the gut to the outside environment, as the immune system sees these toxins as “foreign pathogens.” The body will then trigger inflammatory reactions and changes in the gut to get rid of the problem within the digestive tract and beyond.   Why Is Increased Intestinal Permeability Detrimental? One thing for sure is that any change within the microbiota is not beneficial, if not even harmful. It is because we need to maintain a balance between the good and bad bacteria to preserve a state where every component is stable, known as homeostasis. Meanwhile, inflammation is a normal response of our bodies to pathogenic microorganisms. However, if inflammation persists due to constant, unresolved leakage of the gut lining, the risk of chronic diseases arises, causing many gut- and non-gut-related conditions.   Increased Intestinal Permeability Causes Gut-related Disorders Some individuals are predisposed to intestinal permeability due to genetic and environmental factors. Upon exposure to specific triggers, like a bad diet or lifestyle, this predisposition may result in inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), including: Crohn’s disease (swelling of the tissues in the digestive tract) Ulcerative colitis (ulcers or sores in the digestive tract) Celiac disease (intestinal atrophy and reduced nutrient absorption)   Increased Intestinal Permeability Promotes Chronic Disease Risk Increased intestinal permeability also raises a person’s risk for chronic diseases due to a cascade of events related to the loss of gut barrier function and persistent immune activation on a whole-body level. These chronic disorders include: Atherosclerosis (damage to the artery’s wall): Elevated LDL cholesterol levels, or the “bad” cholesterol, are directly linked to a higher risk for atherosclerotic cardiovascular events. This LDL cholesterol can bind to a bacterial endotoxin in the intestine called lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Both eventually penetrate the circulation and insert themselves into arterial walls, triggering the onset of atherosclerosis. Neurodegeneration (loss of neuronal structure or function): The gut has intricate communication with the central nervous system called the gut-brain axis (GBA). The exact culprit above, the LPS, can bind to the cells in the brain, causing blood-brain barrier breakdown and neuroinflammation. This loss of blood-brain barrier function is common during aging and early cognitive dysfunction.   What Causes Increased Intestinal Permeability? Endogenous Factors Any gut microbiota imbalance may cause disturbance in the tight junctions, promoting intestinal permeability. One of the causes of such anomalies is stress, which can be psychological, emotional, and physical. According to research, stress, and sometimes even depression, can promote inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract, which is the trigger that eventually causes increased intestinal permeability. For example, an unhappy marriage is a constant source of stress. In comparison to happier couples, most hostile couples are found to have worse intestinal permeability. This condition may occur due to an elevation of cortisol levels. Psychological and emotional stress may also drive individuals into unhealthy food choices and binge eating behaviors. As mentioned above, stress elevates cortisol levels, a stress hormone. Cortisol increases appetite and the motivation to consume food in excess. Unfortunately, this increased craving tends to cause us to prefer unhealthy foods like those high in fat and sugar or are inflammatory and obesogenic. Physical stress is another factor that induces gut damage. Research shows that gastrointestinal issues are prevalent in athletes. Not all types of exercise, though, might disturb the gut. For example, the study shows that vigorous endurance training for 60 minutes at 70% of one’s total capacity may lead to the characteristic responses of intestinal permeability. Meanwhile, moderate exercise is safe and even beneficial for gut health.   Exogenous Factors Excess alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, and other toxic products Dietary patterns that are high in fat and sugar or are inflammatory and obesogenic Gluten or dairy products if the person is predisposed to intestinal permeability Abuse of certain medications, such as antibiotics or NSAIDs Gut infection caused by SIBO (small intestinal bacterial overgrowth) or parasites   Dietary Components That Can Improve Intestinal Permeability Dietary Fiber So, how to improve intestinal permeability? Dietary fiber is known to be a nutrient that protects the intestinal barrier and helps keep the microbiota in a healthy state. During digestion, the bacteria in the gut are

Overview Omega-3 fatty acids are well-known for their tremendous roles in various bodily functions. So it is not uncommon for us to reach one of these omega-3 supplements through fish oil to reinforce our heart health, keep our brain mentally sharp, and brighten our eyesight. Although the incidence of low omega-3 is rare, a deficiency in these vital substances can be detrimental. This article reviews the significance of omega-3 fatty acids and explains how omega-3 deficiency may harm your overall health and lifespan. RELATED: 5 Proven Ways to Aid Telomere Shortening for Overall Health & Wellness   Omega-3 Deficiency May Shorten Your Life Expectancy What Are Omega-3 Fatty Acids? Omega-3 fatty acids are a group of essential unsaturated fatty acids that the human body cannot produce but play many crucial roles in human health. The human body can synthesize most of the fats it requires from other fats or raw materials. However, that is not the case with omega-3 fatty acids, which is why they are referred to as “essential” fats. Omega-3 fatty acids are found in cell membranes all over the body. They also serve as a starting point for producing hormones that regulate blood clotting, artery wall contraction and relaxation, and inflammation. The three primary types of omega-3 fatty acids are ALA, EPA, and DHA. ALA is the precursor for converting into the usable EPA and DHA in our bodies, meaning that most of our body’s omega-3 derives from ALA. However, the human body primarily uses ALA, with minimal conversion to EPA and DHA. Omega-3 fatty acids are abundant in marine-based sources such as salmon and tuna or plant-based sources such as flaxseed or walnut. Because EPA and DHA are primarily found in fish, they are sometimes called “marine omega-3s.”   Why Are Omega-3 Fatty Acids Important? Cardiovascular Health The close link between omega-3 and cardiovascular health has long been well established. As a result, people have been seeking food products and supplements that contain omega-3 as a convenient option to maintain a healthy heart. Furthermore, the American Heart Association (AHA) has recommended using omega-3 fatty acids from fish and fish oil to reduce heart-related complications, such as heart attack or stroke, in people with preexisting cardiovascular disease. This means omega-3 fatty acids are crucial to maintaining overall heart health in healthy people; this group of nutrients also helps individuals with heart conditions prevent the disease from worsening and even aids in the treatment process. According to a report by Harvard Medical School, omega-3 supplementation in over 8,000 patients with high cardiovascular risk reduces blood triglyceride levels, the occurrence of heart attacks and strokes, the need for heart surgeries, and the mortality rate.   Cognitive Function Omega-3 fatty acids are not only essential for the normal functions of the heart but also for the development of the brain. Research has found that these substances protect against cognitive decline among elderly individuals. Given the prevalence of dementia at up to 10 percent among individuals aged 65 and 30 percent above 85, sufficient omega-3 intake has been recommended to reduce the risk of age-related cognitive decline. Omega-3 also plays a vital role in the composition of the brain. Research shows consuming more of these fatty acids is associated with greater gray matter volume. Gray matter allows humans to maintain memories and regulate emotions. Such an association may mediate the effects of omega-3 fatty acids on a human’s mental capacity. Other research shows supplementation of omega-3 fatty acids can prevent loss of gray matter thickness, aiding in treating a mental disorder.   Eye Health The human eye has a very high concentration of omega-3 fatty acids, especially DHA, optimizing the integrity and visual function of the retina. These fatty acids accumulate in our eye tissues even before we are born. DHA also has a protective role in the retina. It contributes to releasing the healthy oil that lubricates our eyes for eye comfort. On this account, omega-3 fatty acids are essential in maintaining eye health, especially in seniors. One common eye condition among the elderly is dry eye syndrome, in which the tear cannot provide sufficient lubrication for the eyes. According to the American Academy of Ophthalmology, people with dry eye syndrome feel relieved from the symptoms after consuming omega-3 fatty acids. Further, people who consume the most omega-3 fatty acids have a lower risk of dry eye than those who consume little or no seafood.   Omega-3 Deficiency in Health and Longevity Coronary Heart Disease Given that omega-3 is essential to cardiovascular health, a deficiency can cause heart-related morbidities in humans. According to research, people who consume no fish have a higher coronary heart disease mortality rate than those with at least some fish weekly. Those refraining from fish consumption also have a higher risk of non-sudden death from a heart attack. In women, the risk for coronary heart disease death is up to 34 percent higher in those who rarely eat fish compared with those consuming fish over five times per week.   Alzheimer’s Disease Alzheimer’s disease is a cognitive disorder characterized by a progressive deficit of memory, thinking, and behavior due to the abnormal build-up of a harmful protein known as amyloid-β. Research shows that Alzheimer’s patients have lower DHA levels than healthy people of the same age, suggesting that a DHA deficiency may contribute to cognitive impairment. Accordingly, DHA supplementation can protect against the production and accumulation of amyloid-β in subjects with Alzheimer’s disease.   Age-related Macular Degeneration Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) affects the central part of a person’s vision without causing total blindness. Research shows a negative correlation between omega-3 fatty acids and the risk of AMD. While evidence has not yet confirmed whether increasing omega-3 may help prevent or delay the progression of AMD, these fatty acids can offer protection against it, and a deficiency may hasten the development of the disease.   Recent Findings in Omega-3 Fatty Acids Omega-3 Improves HDL Cholesterol to Reduce Cardiovascular Risks HDL, or “good” cholesterol, absorbs the “bad”

Overview Commercial foods and beverages have been added with more sugar for the past several decades to encourage mass consumption. This “sweet” trend exists because sugar and sweetened products increase our appetite and make consumers unconsciously stick to a high-sugar diet. However, little do we know that too much sugar in the body may cause multiple harmful effects that ultimately lead to a condition known as “metabolic syndrome.” Unfortunately, this health problem is the origin of many other serious diseases among adults and children. This article elucidates the connection between fructose and metabolic syndrome, provides evidence for such an association and offers recent findings in metabolic syndrome treatment and prevention. RELATED: What Is Metabolic Syndrome & What Are Its Risk Factors and Complications   Fructose in Excessive Amounts May Drive Metabolic Syndrome What Is Fructose? Fructose is a sugar found in fruits and other plant-based sources such as honey, sugar cane, and vegetables. It is the sweetest carbohydrate and does not require insulin for metabolism while having a low impact on blood glucose levels. For natural sweetness, corn syrup usually adds fructose to foods and beverages (containing up to 55 percent of fructose). Nevertheless, fructose consumption has increased dramatically in the last few decades worldwide due to its commercial use in soft drinks and foods. In the context of the increasing prevalence of diabetes, obesity, and fatty liver disease, the scientific communities have investigated fructose’s role in developing metabolic syndrome.   What Is Metabolic Syndrome? A common health concern among the senior population is suffering from either high blood pressure or blood sugar. Having only one of such conditions means being closer to age-related chronic diseases, like heart disease or diabetes. However, there is another, sadly even more concerning, problem. It involves both conditions mentioned above, concurrently causing various systemic health issues. We call it “metabolic syndrome.” So, metabolic syndrome is a group of risk factors that co-occur, including: High blood pressure High blood sugar High blood cholesterol Excess abdominal and visceral fat   For this reason, a person having more than one condition above has an increased risk of developing: Heart disease Diabetes Obesity   Unfortunately, many people are unaware of their situation as they remain asymptomatic until their metabolic syndrome symptoms become more serious. But you will be astounded if you look at the “mind-blowing” statistics of how widespread the syndrome is. So, how common is metabolic syndrome? Metabolic syndrome is becoming more prevalent as 1 in every three adults in the United States develops the condition. People are also more susceptible to metabolic syndrome with age, as the condition affects 40 percent of people in their 60s and 70s. Sad to say, metabolic syndrome does not exclude anyone. It can be found in men and women, and the incidence rate is 24 percent in men and 22 percent in women.   How Does Fructose Affect Metabolic Syndrome? Fructose Increases Fat in the Liver The human body metabolizes fructose and glucose differently, as only a small amount of fructose is released into the circulatory system after intake. In contrast, glucose is the primary sugar found in our blood. The liver is the main organ where fructose metabolism occurs. This organ metabolizes up to 90 percent of the fructose amount in our body. However, if you consume excessive fructose, the liver metabolizes more sugar than usual and may start storing fructose as fat. On this account, increased fructose consumption may lead to a fatty liver if the organ is overloaded with sugar. In addition, research suggests that fructose consumption may be a culprit of the metabolic syndrome associated with excess fat accumulation in the liver. To back this hypothesis, a study on fructose and glucose supplementation in animals showed that the fructose-supplemented diet caused more adverse effects on metabolic responses than glucose despite providing lower caloric intake. Another study involving daily intake of a fructose-sweetened beverage for six months in overweight human subjects showed significant increases in liver fat without remarkable total fat mass changes. Such fat accumulation and the weakened oxidation of fatty acid in the liver due to fructose may lead to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), which is, unfortunately, the origin of various metabolic risk factors. RELATED: 10 Warning Signs Your Liver is Struggling & What You Can Do About It   Fructose Elevates Uric Acid Level Uric acid is a byproduct found in our blood. It is formed when the body breaks down foods and drinks. Therefore, the level of uric acid can increase following the consumption of food and beverage products with high-fructose corn syrup. While most uric acid dissolves in the circulation and is excreted from the body in urine, elevated uric acid level is associated with high cardiovascular risk, including high blood pressure, a condition of metabolic syndrome. Research shows a positive correlation between fructose intake and uric acid in humans, leading to a hypothesis that excessive fructose may result in an elevation of uric acid. High uric acid levels may cause an acute constriction of blood vessels by affecting a system called renin-angiotensin. The renin-angiotensin system is a physiological system that regulates blood pressure. Dysregulation of this system narrows and hardens the small arteries and increases blood pressure.   Fructose Alters the Gut Microbiota Gut microbiota is the microorganism in our digestive tract known as the host. Typically, the gut microbiota can interact with the host and affect the control of energy balance and immune functions. High fructose intake can negatively affect the interaction between the host and the gut microbiota. As a result, the symbiotic relationship is impaired, possibly causing problems in metabolism and metabolic diseases. Indeed, the gut microbiota is divergent between healthy people and NAFLD patients. It is because a high-fructose diet harms the gut barrier and the microbiota composition and ultimately causes NAFLD. Although the underlying mechanisms by which fructose damages the gut have not yet been determined, it is suggested that fructose activates a pathway involving acetic acid generation. RELATED: 5 Genius Ways to Restore

Overview Fractures, or broken bones, are common injuries that various reasons can cause. While surgeries and rehabilitation programs can help patients regain normal mobility and functioning, injury detection and treatment delay may lead to irreversible damage. This article aims to provide information about a type of bone break called comminuted fractures, how doctors and surgical technicians typically treat the injury, and the latest findings in comminuted fracture treatment. RELATED: Rheumatoid Arthritis: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment   Comminuted Fracture: a Severe Type of Bone Break That Affects a Wide Range of Populations What is a Comminuted Fracture? A comminuted fracture is a break of a bone that results in shattered fragments of bone at the injured site. It is typically caused by a significant physical impact and is considered a severe bone break. Surgery is almost certainly required in treating comminuted fractures, and recovery can take a year or longer. Some areas that are most vulnerable to a comminuted fracture include: Thigh bone Kneecap Shinbone Forearm Wrist Joint Collarbone   1. Comminuted Fractures and Segmental Fractures A comminuted fracture is distinct from a segmental fracture. The broken area is shattered into several small pieces in a comminuted fracture. On the other hand, in a segmental fracture, the damaged area is separated by a large, detached section of the bone.   2. Open and Closed Comminuted Fractures An open or closed comminuted fracture is how doctors describe the severity and complexity of the fracture. An open comminuted fracture is when the bone breaks through the skin and protrudes outward. The protrusion of the bone makes this type of fracture more severe and more likely to lead to infection. A compound fracture is another term for an open comminuted fracture. A closed comminuted fracture is when the bone breaks inside the injured area without bone protrusion. This type of fracture is less severe and takes less time to recover. However, both types of injuries require prompt medical care and intensive recovery.   3. Displaced and Nondisplaced Comminuted Fractures A comminuted fracture can be either displaced or nondisplaced from the alignment during the break. If the fracture is displaced, the bone pieces move so much and leave a gap around the fracture. If the fracture is nondisplaced, the fragments of the bone still move, but to a lesser extent, and are not out of alignment.   What Are the Symptoms of a Comminuted Fracture? 1. Common Symptoms Pain, swelling, or bruising Protrusion in the affected area Inability to move the injured area   2. Severe Complications Dizziness Nausea Faintness Infection   3. When Should You Go to the Emergency Room? You should seek medical attention immediately if you suspect you have a comminuted fracture or other broken bone. If you suffer any of the following, head to the emergency room: Intense pain that goes with swelling or bruising Tenderness when pressing on the part of your body Inability to move a part of your body An area of your body is dislocated or out of normal shape   What Causes a Comminuted Fracture? 1. Serious Physical Impact Healthy bones are typically solid and resilient enough to endure average physical impact, like a slip or a fall. However, a more intense force due to a car accident or a fall from a great height may cause a comminuted fracture.   2. Underlying Health Conditions Older people may be more susceptible to a comminuted fracture, especially with bone diseases like osteoporosis or bone cancer. Menopausal women are also more likely to experience the injury due to a drop in estrogen, which plays a significant role in maintaining bone formation at the cellular level. RELATED: Is It Possible to Prevent Bone Loss? Causes, Symptoms & Treatment   How Is a Comminuted Fracture Diagnosed? 1. Physical Examination First, your doctor will inspect your injured area to determine whether the tenderness, pain, or immobility is due to a broken bone.   2. Imaging Tests Your doctor will also have you undergo imaging tests, including an X-ray, CT scan, or MRI, to ensure the accuracy of the initial physical examination. An X-ray shows how damaged the fractured bones are. A CT scan gives the surgeon a more detailed picture of the broken bone and the surrounding tissues. An MRI shows how the injury affects the muscles, connective tissues, and organs.   How to Treat a Comminuted Fracture 1. Internal Fixation The fundamental approach to repairing a broken bone is realigning and securing the bones in their correct position by installing metal rods, plates, screws, or nails. This technique is called internal fixation. To implant these pieces of metal into your bone, surgeons will make an incision at the injured area, attach the screws along the broken section, and secure the screws with a long nail in the center of the bone. This internal metal structure helps support the bone until it heals.   2. External Fixation Sometimes, internal fixation is attached to a frame outside of the broken bone, called external fixation. This method stabilizes the fracture while other injuries heal and is often a temporary measure. Your surgeon will connect the screws attached to the broken bone with a brace around the bone outside your body. Another method is traction, which uses weights, pulleys, and ropes to gently exert pressure and draw the broken bone back into the correct position. A cast or a splint may also be used in treating a comminuted fracture. These orthopedic devices stabilize the shattered bone and stop the surrounding tissue from moving as it heals. Casts and splints can also relieve the discomfort by preventing or reducing muscle contractions.   3. Bone Grafting Bone grafting is inserting additional bone tissue into the severely displaced fracture. This method is necessary if the injury is too severe to the point the surgeon expects it to take a prolonged amount of time to heal. Bone grafting is usually done in the first phase of the surgery, followed by internal fixation. Bone grafts come from the